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Grammar help

The verb 'to be'

The verb 'to be' in English is an auxiliary verb (continuous and passive auxiliary verb) and also a linking verb. In point of fact the Zarma language only has a linking verb 'to be'. First the theory is discussed about how auxiliary and linking verbs are contructed in Zarma and subsequently the theory is illustrated with examples.

Examples of use of 'to be':
continuous	I am walking home
	Ay go ga dira ay fuwo se
passive	The book was thrown away
	I na tira furu (lit. they threw away the book)
linking	Ay ya cawandiko no
	I 'm a teacher

Topics

Auxiliary verb

Theory

Examples

continuous

passive

Linking verb

Theory

Examples

Auxiliary verb

Theory

'The auxiliary verbs of time 'to be' and 'will" do not exist in Zarma.

The auxiliary verb of tense is indicated with particles in Zarma. In Zarma in general tense is indicated by particles (auxiliaries) or by context while in English tense is indicated by conjugation of auxiliary verbs of tense.

The passive voice does not exist in Zarma. In Zarma the active voice using the third person plural pronoun also has a passive voice denotation. Therefore a Zarma sentence in the active voice with the third person pronoun might be translated to an English sentence in the passive voice.

Examples: Tense auxiliary verb

The auxiliary verb 'to be' as such does not exist in Zarma. The page "conjugation of verbs" shows tense auxiliaries, i.e. particles, used in a similar way to the auxiliary verb 'to be in the continuous form in English. In Lesson 5.D.3 the present and in Lesson 15.C.2 the past continuous form is discussed. Some examples are given below.

Zarma	English
Ay mo go no ga ni ceci	I too am looking for you.
Watokan i kaa bi, a go no ga tirey hantum.	When they came yesterday, he was writing letters.
Ay go ga koy habu.	I am going to market. (I'm on my way to market)
Nango kan a ra ni goy manan, i go ga ni bana, wala?	Where they worked last year, did they pay you? (regularly)
Bariyo ga ba ga bu.	The horse is about to die.
A bina sara hal a ga ba ga hen.	She was so sad that she was about to weep.

Examples: Passive auxiliary

Strictly speaking, there is no passive voice in Zarma. The effect of a passive, in a sentence where the agency is not specified, can be achieved by using the third person plural pronoun 'i'' (they) as the subject, in the same way we use 'they' for an indefinite pronoun (as in 'they say that ...'). Some examples are given in the next table. For more examples see Lesson 6.D.3.

Zarma	English (passive voice)	English (active voice)
I na farkay kar.	The donkey was hit.	They hit the donkey.
I n'a kar.	I was hit.	They hit me.
I ga hayni wi hemar alwaati.	Millet is reaped in the harvest season.	They reap the millet in the harvest season.

Linking verb

Theory

Main forms
The linking verb 'to be' has in Zarma many forms. This verb is generally expressed by two words, either 'go no' or 'si no'. 'go no' is the positive. 'si no' is the negative. Sometimes the negative is formed by using "manti". These words, 'go' and 'no' , may be used either together or separately, in different kinds of 'being'.

Tense
The tense is often indicated by the context. The past and future of 'go no' is frequently shown by the verbs 'ciya' (to become), 'te' (to make) or 'goro' (to sit) with the appropriate tense indicators. This is in addition to their regular uses as verbs.

Special forms
When there is a predicate adjective (describing the subject) the particle 'ga' is used to link the subject to its attribute, rather than a verb. In translation it becomes the verb 'to be'. For emphasis a ''no' may be added after the adjective. The negative form of 'ga' is 'si'

The combination 'ya ... no' is a special form of the verb 'to be'. When the verb 'no' has its subject stated and not implied (it is, he is, they are, etc.) the auxiliary 'ya' must follow the subject. It is used, for example, to tell your origin or nationality, the place where you come from, or your occupation. In certain regions one may hear 'wo .. no' in stead of 'ya ... no'. The negative of 'ya ... no' is formed by adding 'manti'. Some people use the short form without 'ya'.

The combination 'ga ti' has the effect that the predicate identifies the subject. It is a linking verb with the same function in it's sentence that 'no' has at the end of the sentence; it is fully interchangeable with 'no', except for position. The government’s regulation on how it is to be spelled notwithstanding, this verb is usually pronounced by Zarmas as 'kaci'.

Examples: linking verb

The following forms of the linking verb 'to be' are illustrated below:
-	'go' and 'go no'
-	'go no' past and future
-	'no'
-	'ga' and 'no'
-	'ya ... no' ('wo ... no')
-	'ga ti'
-	negative of 'go no', 'go' en 'no'
-	negative of 'ga'
-	negative of 'ya ... no'

GO and GO NO

"go no" is used to show absolute existence; it nearly equals French "il y a".

Zarma	English
Hunkuna kubay go no	It is dark today. (lit.: Darkness is today.)
Bi ŋwari go no.	Yesterday there was food. (lit.: Yesterday food was)

"go" is used along between the subject and predicate nominative to indicate locations.

Zarma	English
Jiney go daro cire.	The baggage is under the bed.
Hanso go fuwo ra.	The dog is in the house.
Tasey go tablo boŋ.	The dishes are on the table.

Note:
If one had 'go no' in any of the above, then the meaning would be: 'there is (there are) ... ', but the subject could not be definite.

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GO NO past and future

As 'go no' has no tense indicators the context might give an indication. The past and future of "to be" is frequently shown by the verbs 'ciya' (to become), 'te' (to make) or 'goro' (to sit) with the appropriate tense indicators. This is in addition to their regular uses as verbs (see Lesson 22.C.5).

Zarma	English
Ay na boradin bay; a ciya ay cora.	I knew that person; he was my friend.
A te ay se cora.	He was a friend to me.
Han fo ay ga te alfa.	Some day I shall be a teacher.
Rabbi Yesu Almasihu gomno ma goro araŋ kulu banda.	May the grace of the Lord Jesus Christ be with you all. [Rom. 16:24]

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'no' with a predicate nominative

With a predicate nominative 'no' is very like the French 'c'est' and 'ce sont'. No subject is needed when it is understood to be the third person pronoun. If the subject of this 'no' verb is stated, there is a special auxiliary, 'ya'. This verb comes at the end of its clause, and is the most widely used, especially being added for emphasis, where we would let the main verb carry it.

Zarma	English
Safari no ay kande.	It is medicine I brought.
Ni do no ay koy.	It was to you I went.
A taasaa no.	It is his dish.
Zanka no.	She's a child. / He's a child.

Predicate nominative is a pronoun

When the predicate nominative is a pronoun, the same construction is used as above. The long forms of the third person pronouns are used with this verb.

Zarma	English
Ay no	It is I
Ni no	It is you
Nga no, wala?	Is it she?
Oho, ngey no go fuwa ra.	Yes, it is they (who) are in the house.
Ay no g' a te.	It is I (who) will do it.

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GA and NO

When there is a predicate adjective (describing the subject) the particle 'ga' is used to link the subject to its attribute, rather than a verb. In translation it becomes the verb 'to be'. For emphasis a 'no' may be added after the adjective.

Zarma	English
Bi habo ga beeri.	Yesterday's market was big.
Bi habo ga beeri no.	It's yesterday's market that was big.
A ga boori.	It (he, she) is pretty.
A ga boori no.	It's she that is pretty.

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YA ... NO (WO ... NO)

General

The combination 'ya ... no' is a form of the verb 'to be' used when the verb 'no' has its subject stated and not implied, e.g. to tell or ask someone's origin or nationality, the place where the person comes from, or his or hers occupation.

The short form of the third person singular and plural personal pronoun, 'a' and 'i', are not used in combination with 'ya ... no', but only the long forms 'nga"' and 'ngey'.

Note: In certain regions one may hear 'wo .. no' in stead of 'ya ... no'.

Express nationality

To express your nationality or the origin of someone, there are two ways to tell this. You could say 'He is English' or 'He is an Englishman'. In Zarma this is similar.

Zarma	English
Ni ya Ingilise no.	You are English.
Ni ya Ingilisi boro no.	You are an Englishman.
Nga ya Amerken no. *	He is American. / She is American.
Nga ya Amerik boro no. *	He is an American. / She is an American (woman).
Ni ya Zarma no.	You are Zarma.
Ni ya Zarma (boro) no.	You are a Zarma.
Ay ya Franse no.	I am French.
Ay ya Fransi boro no.	I am a Frenchman.

* The short form of the third person singular and plural personal pronoun, 'a' and 'i', are not used in combination with 'ya ... no'.

To express the place you're from

To tell someone the place where you come from you use 'ya ... no' as well in combination with the name of the place were you come from: 'Ay ya <name of place> boro no'.

Zarma	English
Ay ya Say boro no.	I 'm from Say. / I come from Say.
Ngey ya Ɲamay boro yaŋ no. *	They are from Niamey.

* the indefinite plural form of nouns are discussed in Lesson 12.D.2.

To express your occupation

Finally, the form 'ya ... no' is used to tell someone your occupation: 'Ay ya <occupation> no'.

Zarma	English
Ay ya cawandiko no.	I 'm a teacher (an instructor).
Araŋ ya lokkol-ize yaŋ no.	Your are students (apprentices, pupils).
Ni ya butikkoy no.	You are a shopkeeper.
Iri ya day fansiko yaŋ no.	We are well diggers.

Interrogative form

The form 'ya ... no' is invariable and can be used for phrases in affirmative and interrogative form.

Zarma	English
Ni ya man boro no?	Where are you from?
Araŋ ya Niizeer laabu boro yaŋ no.	Your are Nigerien.
Ni ya motokoy no.	You are a chauffeur.
Iri ya volontaire yaŋ no.	We are volunteers.

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GA TI

The Zarma verb 'ga ti' is translated by the present forms of the verb 'to be'. It has the effect that the predicate identifies the subject. It is a linking verb with the same function in it's sentence that 'no' has at the end of the sentence; it is fully interchangeable with "no", except for position.

The government’s regulation on how it is to be spelled notwithstanding, 'ga ti' is usually pronounced by Zarmas as 'kaci'.

Zarma	Zarma alternative	English
Ni ga ti may no?	Ni ya may no?	You are whom?
Idde ga ti Sanda izo.	Idde Sanda izo no.	Idde is Sanda’s son.
Ifo ga ti hayadin?	Ifo no hayadin?	What is that thing?
Rabbi Yesu ne: Ay ga ti fonda. ^*1	Rabbi Yesu ne: Ay ya fonda no. ^*1	The lord Jesus said, "I am the way".

^*1 Quotation marks are not used in Zarma for simplicity’s sake.

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Negative of GO NO, GO and NO

Sometimes the negative is formed by using 'si' and other times by using 'manti'.

SI NO

To show absolute existence (French 'il y a') the form 'go no' is used. This changes to 'si no' to form the negative.

Zarma	English
Goro yaŋ si no.	There are no kola nuts.
Ŋwari si no.	There is no food. (lit. 'Food not be')
Buuru iyye si no fuwo ra.	There are no seven loaves of bread in the house.

SI

The form 'go' is used along between the subject and predicate nominative to indicate locations. The negative is formed by replacing 'go' by 'si'.

Zarma	English
Tira si tablo boŋ.	The book is not on the table.
Maman nda Fati si ne.	Maman and Fati are not here.
Hanso si fuwo ra.	The dog is not in the house.

MANTI

When a noun is used as a predicate nominative and the 'no' form is used, 'manti' is used instead of 'si' to make the negative.

Zarma	English
Boradin manti ay baabaa no.	That person is not my father.
A maa manti Aline.	Her name isn't Aline.
Manti cimi no!	It’s not true!
Manti ay no!	It’s not me!

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Negative of GA

Zarma	English
A si tin.	t isn't heavy.
Boro yaŋ si ba habu.	There isn't anybody at the market.
Haw wo si futu.	This cow isn't mean.

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Negative of verb YA ... NO

When the verb 'no' has its subject stated (and not implied) the auxiliary 'ya' must follow the object. The negative of 'ya ... no' is formed by adding 'manti'. Some people use the short form without 'ya'.

Zarma	English
Ay ya manti cawandiko no.	I 'm not a teacher (an instructor).
Ni ya manti Ingilisi boro no.	You aren't an Englishman.
Bora din manti butikkoy no.	That person isn't a shopkeeper.